February 4th: Isocrates

Plan for the Day

• Education
• Isocrates’ Speeches
• Mini-Rhetorical Analysis Fun
  • • I want you to discuss your topics in class next week (2/11) and the following week (2/18)–they’re due Friday, 2/27
    • Be on the lookout for persuasive passages like we had on last week’s webpage
• Finding Dominant Appeals (time permitting)

Education Statement

I want us to address this statement in class:

Education for the sake of education is good in and of itself regardless of any future preparation for a career.

The first time I uttered this was in my first* PhD class on the very first night. I believed it then and still believe it 20+ years later.

*Technically, it was the second because we had a summer boot camp course on teaching.

The Work of an Orator

Your textbook, edited by Michael Gagarin, has some important background information to keep in mind when considering the purpose of Isocrates’ work. Our job will be to connect these teachings and advice to contemporary or other historical time periods. What’s similar? What’s different or even anathema? What has remained a core emphasis for elite education? Some general points from Gagarin:

• p. xii: “The practice of writing speeches began in the courts and then expanded to include the Assembly and other settings. Athens was one of the leading cities of Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries, and its political and legal systems depended on direct participation by a large number of citizens; all important decisions were made by these large bodies, and the primary means of influencing these decisions was oratory.”
• p. xii: “It is convenient to designate these three types of oratory by the terms Aristotle later uses: forensic (for the courts), deliberative (for the Assembly), and epideictic (for display).”
• p. xiv: Of “dozens–perhaps even hundreds…only ten of these [orators] were selected for preservation and study by ancient scholars, and only works collected under the names of these ten have been preserved.”
• p. xvi: “[Isocrates] favored accommodation with the growing power of Philip of Macedon and panhellenic unity….Isocrates greatly influenced education and rhetoric in the Hellenistic, Roman, and modern periods until the eighteenth century.”
• p. xxi: “litigants often try to impress the jurors by referring to liturgies they have undertaken”
  • “the rich were also subject to special taxes (eisphorai) levied as a percentage of their property in times of need.”
• p. xxiii: “a logographer could probably learn from jurors which points had or had not been successful, so that arguments that are found repeatedly in speeches probably were known to be effective in most cases.”
• p. xxiv: “Suits for injuries to slaves would be brought by the slave’s master, and injuries to women would be prosecuted by a male relative.”
• p. xxv: “For Plato, democracy amounted to the tyranny of the masses over the educated elite and was destined to collapse from its own instability.”
• p. xxvi: “the rich used the courts as battlegrounds, though their main weapon was the rhetoric of popular ideology, which hailed the rule of law and promoted the ideal of moderation and restraint.”

So Who Ran Things?

• p. xix: “a great many citizens held public office at some point in their lives, but almost none served for an extended period of time or developed the experience or expertise that would make them professionals.”
• p. xxiv: “Athenians never developed a system of public prosecution; rather, they presumed that everyone would keep an eye on the behavior of his political enemies and bring suit as soon as he suspected a crime, both to harm his opponents and to advance his own career. In this way all public officials would be watched by someone.”
  • What does this tell us about the government and, perhaps, ability to continue maintaining a loosely grouped federation of Greek city-states?
  • Consider the Macedonian conquerors, Philip and Alexander, who “united” the known world.

Greek Civilization	Roman Civilization
Classical Greece (our figures through Alexander, 323 BCE) Mostly a pseudo-Democracy	Kingdom of Rome (until 509 BCE)
Hellenistic Greece (various kingdoms until annexation by Rome, 146 BCE)	Roman Republic (until 49 BCE)
	Roman Empire (until around 450 CE)
	Rise of Christianity

Isocrates’ Speeches

Was Isocrates a philosopher, rhetorician, or sophist? Well, it kind of depends on our definition, but we know he was an important orator and ran a school in competition with Plato, Aristotle, and others in Athens (and elsewhere in the Ancient Greek world). Although he is lesser known than Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, he provides us with both practical rhetorical texts and insight into life in Ancient Greece. He lived to 97 or 98, which meant he lived more than twice as long as the life expectancy* of Ancient Greeks, according to our discussion a couple week’s ago. Living to 100 is a feat nowadays and was unbelievable in Ancient Greece, so Isocrates witnessed quite a bit of a turbulent century (436–338 BCE). *Pay close attention: “life expectancy” isn’t equivalent to “average age.”

• p. 3: “At the core of his teaching was an aristocratic notion of aretē (‘‘virtue, excellence’’), which could be attained by pursuing philosophia…the study and practical application of ethics, politics, and public speaking.”
• p. 4: “He stresses that his teaching (paideia) is practical and is aimed at preparing young men broadly as gentlemen….and is essentially an education in political leadership, a mechanism for the construction of authority among the traditional elite groups that comprise Isocrates’ ideal pupils.“
• p. 5: “For Isocrates logos (discourse) and philosophia (the study of and training in discourse) are at the core of any orderly, civilized community and have been essential to the success of Athens, the classical democratic city par excellence.
  • “Discourse institutionalizes morality and makes possible debate, persuasion, and the instruction of others…”
• p. 8: “Isocrates instead seeks to appropriate the term philosophia to describe his intellectual activity and teaching, thereby implicitly challenging Plato, who was seeking to appropriate the term for his own work.”
  • And we’ve been fighting about definitions ever since…
  • Well, the fight started much earlier, but this is the recorded history we’ve been left.
• p. 17: “But unlike Plato, who was led for this reason to throw out much of the Greek mythology that was handed down from Homer and Hesiod, Isocrates accepts it, claiming justification for the actions of many legendary figures, like Helen, Agamemnon, and Busiris, who are vilified by earlier writers.”
  • What might be some motivations for Isocrates to use these myths and figures of mythology?
  • There’s no correct answer here: I’m just asking you to think.

“To Demonicus”

This should be very familiar to audiences because of it’s relationship to religious rhetoric. Notice the style and topics advocated as well as condemned.

• p. 20: The base and the honorable.
  • What is important about loving one’s friends?
  • [4] Teach to improve character–not just to be clever and well spoken.
• p. 21: “Wealth supports evil rather than noble conduct: it provides a basis for laziness and exhorts the young to pleasures.”
  • By “young,” he means 13 year-olds and others of middle age.
    • Interestingly, he was a logographer for those wanting to keep their money or get it back…
  • Is this still the case? I mean, Elon Musk isn’t lazy…
• p. 22: Seek moderation.
  • “Fear the gods; honor your parents; respect your friends; obey the laws.”
  • I swear I’ve heard such Commandments before but where?
  • He also says not to be a hypocrite on the next page.
  • Let’s pause on hypocrisy…is it always a bad attribute? Maybe it depends on the definition.
• p. 23: “Wisdom is the only immortal acquisition.”
  • Compare to what Plato says about seeking wisdom and the way a soul glimpses truth.
  • Study abroad to improve your thinking.
  • I have LOTS to say about this.
• pp. 23-24: Treat others as you wish to be treated.
  • Total déjà vu.
• p. 26: Don’t get drunk in order to maintain proper thinking.
  “…the soul makes many mistakes when its thinking is impaired.”
  “Think like an immortal by being great-hearted, and like a mortal by enjoying your property in moderation.”
• p. 27: “[36] Imitate the manners of kings and follow their habits, for you will…thus achieve more distinction in the eyes of the multitude and more reliable goodwill from kings.”
  • Be like the aristocracy and those of good birth: speak properly, be calm, discuss erudite stuff like literature and opera.
    *check out the etymology of erudite.
  • Clearly, Isocrates never watched Game of Thrones.
• p. 27: “Prefer a just poverty over unjust wealth…justice furnishes a good reputation even to the dead.”
• Honore de Balzac: “Behind every great fortune there is a crime…”
• p. 28: Manage your expectations.
• P. 29: “we do not do most things in life for the sake of activities themselves, but we work for results.”
  • Great tech writing advice–focus on user goals, not tasks

What might be governing the social construction of these “commandments”? Consider the fact that he was selected to the canon by ancient and medieval scholars.

“Against the Sophists”

Again, he’s trying to establish his school as superior to others in Greece.

• p. 62: “They say they have no need for money, disparaging wealth as ‘mere silver and gold,’ but in their desire for a little profit they almost promise to make their students immortal.”
• p. 63: Sophists can’t predict the future and can’t cultivate the souls of students. They are charlatans full of empty promises.
• p. 64: “…the function of letters is unchanging and remains the same, so that we always keep using the same letters for the same sounds, the function of words is entirely opposite. What is said by one person is not useful in a similar way for the next speaker, but that man seems most artful (technikōtatos) who both speaks worthily of the subject matter and can discover things to say that are entirely different from what others have said.”
  • “letters” from footnote #6: “I.e., logoi, which could also be translated as ‘speeches’ or ‘”arguments.'”
  • Although I question the idea that letters always have the same sound, once again, this is a very postmodern statement from an ancient figure. The same words or speech can produce different effects in an audience. There’s no direct transmittal of rhetoric.
• p. 64: “Abilities in speaking and all the other faculties of public life are innate in the well-born and developed in those trained by experience. [15]”
• pp. 64-65: [14] Natural ability and the limits of education.
• Can public speaking be taught? Can debate be coached?
• p. 66: “[21] Nevertheless, those who wish to follow the prescriptions of my philosophy may be helped more quickly to fair-mindedness than to speechmaking.”
  • “I contend that there is no sort of art that can convert those who by nature lack virtue to soundness of mind and a sense of justice.”
• He should explain one can get to enlightenment in less than 3,000 years…

Part II

Translator Yun Lee Too notes that the speeches here characterize Isocrates as teacher (p. 137). Here’s the long quotation for us to consider:

Isocrates’ pedagogical identity demonstrates that rhetorical teaching— teaching that is articulated in rhetorical texts—may be an important mode of political activity, albeit one that is quite distinct from the contemporary political scene as conducted through litigation and sykophancy. Teaching is a responsible act, ensuring that rulers and ruled know their obligations to each other and to their community, that the community knows its origins and authority, and that it realizes the debt owed to the culture of speech and its practitioners. Isocrates I. Trans. David C. Mirhady & Yun Lee Too. University of Texas P, 2000, p. 137.

• p. 138: “…ideally authority in the ancient Greek world is knowing both how to rule and how to be ruled.”
• As note 3 points out, these speeches “were translated into Latin, English, French, and German as paradigms for the genre known as the ‘instruction of princes.'”
• p. 138: “[Antidosis] is a speech that asks its Athenian audience to give the credit for who they are as a community to logos and to the responsible teachers of logos.”

Is this a sentiment heard today? Do teachers get credit from the community for instilling values?

Isocrates’ “Antidosis”

Isocrates’ “Antidosis” (pp. 201-264) is quite important for understanding his philosophy, so pay close attention. By now, you’re well aware of the requirement that wealthy Athenians pay liturgies to improve the community: temples, choruses, and even triremes. The translator tells readers that this fictional speech is based on an actual event “in 356, a wealthy citizen Megacleides was summoned to undertake the funding of a trireme….[but claimed] that the rhetorician Isocrates should be liable for the trierarchy since he was the wealthier of the two” (p. 201). Furthermore, this speech, written when Isocrates was 82, attempts to both characterize his virtue and the lasting effect he and promoting philosophy will have on Athens and all of Greece: educating future leaders. Keep in mind the translator’s observation of Isocrates’ major assumption.

• p. 201: “The liturgy system was one which ensured that rich citizens expended some of their resources in the interests of the community as a whole…”
  • So I guess trickle-down economics worked in ancient Greece…
• Engaging in philosophy…
  • “By ‘philosophy,’ however, the rhetorician means the use of language to maintain order where an individual’s home, the city state, and Athens’ larger political interests are concerned; if logos is the basis of the political community, then ‘philosophy’ helps to create and maintain this community as such.”
• p. 203: “For [Isocrates], rhetoric is philosophy, that is, the ability to speak, to reason, and to act. It is not an abstract and impractical activity….Rhetoric/philosophy does not rely on a fixed body of knowledge (epistēmē) but on ability to guess and conjecture (doxa) at the right opportunities.”
  • “These skills allow the orator or the politician to say and do what is necessary in any particular situation.”
• Compare to Aristotle: “Let rhetoric be [defined as] an ability, in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion” (1.2.1, Kennedy p. 37; Part 2, para. 1 Online; [1356a])
• p. 204: “Isocrates seeks to show that, as a teacher of rhetoric, he has been concerned with the overall welfare of Athens and its interests and has given far more to Athens than he has taken from it.”
  • Tries to reclaim sophist.

Let’s consider these other areas:

p. 218: “all my speeches pertain to virtue justice.”

Isocrates goes into his approach to instructing “the Cyprian Nicocles, who was king at that time, and it advises him how he should rule his citizens.”

pp. 219: “[72] I also try to persuade him to treat it as a terrible matter if he sees worse men ruling the better classes, and the foolish giving orders to the more sensible. And I add that, insofar as he disparages others’ stupidity more vigorously, so much more so should he cultivate his own understanding.”

Isocrates then reads “To Nicocles” (pp. 158-168 in Mirhady & Too)–se note 38

• • p. 159:  The difference in education and approach to ordinary citizens and monarchs.
    “Many things educate ordinary citizens: above all, the lack of luxury and the need to plan for one’s livelihood each day; [3] then, the laws by which each individual lives as a citizen; next, outspokenness (parrhēsia) and open permission for friends to rebuke and for enemies to attack each other’s faults.”
  • “[4] But the situation of monarchs (tyrannoi), who need education more than others, is very different, and when they come to power, they are never admonished.“
  • p. 160: “I think that everyone would agree that rulers should end a city’s misfortune, maintain its prosperity, and make it big if it is small.”
  • What’s the rhetorical effect of this sentence?
  • “…kings are required to train their souls as no athlete trains his body—for none of the public festivals offers the sort of challenge you (kings) undertake each day.”
  • “…education and diligence have the greatest power to benefit our nature. [13] Associate with the wisest of your advisers, and send for any others you can; and do not think you have the luxury of being ignorant of any of the famous poets or sophists.”
  • p. 161: “Take thought for the common people, and do everything to rule them in a way that pleases them, [16] knowing that oligarchies and other forms of government which best serve the people (to plēthos) last the longest.”
  • p. 162: “[24] Do not try to exercise authority by harsh or extreme punishments, but by dominating all with your intelligence and by making others think that you plan better than they do for their best interests.”
  • p. 164: Wealth ≠ ethos–“Even base men have wealth, but only those who are superior can possess a good reputation.”
  • “Moderation lies in falling short rather than in going too far.”
  • pp. 165-166: “…we should consider most accomplished the man who is able to draw together the most ideas held by others and to articulate them most elegantly.”
  • p. 166: “…most people do not delight in the healthiest foods, in the finest way of life, in the best actions, or in the most useful creatures; rather, they enjoy pleasures that are in every way opposed to their own advantage…”
  • p. 167: “Clearly those who wish to do or write something to please the masses do not seek the most useful speeches but those that are full of fictions (mythōdestatoi). For people delight when they hear such narratives
    or watch contests and competitions.”

• p. 220—Here, Isocrates asks a series of three rhetorical questions about speeches (just before and after [77]). Then, he associates the ability to speak and persuade (the ability to use rhetoric) as the foundation for civilized society; therefore, his position as teacher is the most important in all of Greece.
• • “If you were to be persuaded by my words, you would govern the whole of Greece well and justly and in the best interests of Athens.”
  • “…we should value those who make it their business to write speeches of this kind more than those who legislate and inscribe laws…”
• p. 221: “I try to persuade the whole city to undertake activities which will lead to their own happiness and will free the rest of the Greeks from their present evils.”
• And what is the connotation of “happiness” in this context?
• p. 238: “the condition of the city necessarily depends on how the young are educated. Thus sykophants cannot be in charge of such an important matter…”
• p. 241: “…courage that does not signify shamelessness but prepares the soul with moderation (sōphrosynē) so that it has as much confidence in addressing all the citizens as in deliberating with himself.”
• p. 243: “We acquire knowledge through hard work, and we each put into practice what we learn in our own way. From every school only two or three become competitors, while the rest go off to be private citizens.”
  • I believe he means these “competitors” are the bad kind of sophists out to use rhetoric to enrich themselves. But he could also imply that only a few orators go on to be leaders.
• p. 248: “Not one of these men who had done such great things neglected speech (logoi); rather, they paid much more attention to it than to other things.”
  • • Here’s one list of the Seven Sages
  • p. 248: “[239] Isn’t it more fitting to praise rather than put on trial men who do not get involved in such matters, and who do not live without discipline, or engage in any other shameful activity? It is clear that we educate our students into the same sort of activities as occupy us.”

Isocrates appears to go all out in promoting rhetoric, public speaking broadly, as the most important activity. Consider, though, as we’ve discussed in other contexts, that this pursuit is not expected of everyone. In fact, Isocrates points to a need for “native talent” (p. 240) to acquire these skills.

• p. 250: “[245] But toward those who apply themselves diligently and wish to acquire the things they themselves desire, they are irritated and jealous, they are upset, and they go through the same sort of experience as lovers.”
• p. 250: “[249] This is a sign not only of their confusion, but also of their disrespect for the gods.”
• pp. 250-251: “[250] Worst of all, although they assume the soul is more important than the body, despite knowing this, they welcome those who engage in gymnastics more than those who engage in philosophy. Surely it is irrational to praise those who engage in a lesser activity rather than a higher activity.”
  • Yeah! More reading, less gym!
• p. 251: “Speech (logos) is responsible for nearly all our inventions. [255] It legislated in matters of justice and injustice and beauty and baseness, and without these laws, we could not live with one another.”
  • Replace “speech” with “communication,” and you can probably jump to technical communication, scientific dissemination, and education in general.
• p. 252: “[256] With speech we fight over contentious matters, and we investigate the unknown….[257] If one must summarize the power of discourse, we will discover that nothing done prudently occurs without speech (logos), that speech is the leader of all thoughts and actions, and that the most intelligent people use it most of all.”
• p. 253: “When we are exercised and sharpened in these matters, we are able to receive and learn more important and significant material more quickly and easily.”
• p. 255: “[257] In my view, people improve and become worthier if they are interested in speaking well, have a passion for being able to persuade their audience, and also desire advantage (pleonexia)—not what foolish people think it is but that which truly has this power.”
• “[278] Moreover, anyone who wishes to persuade others will not neglect virtue but will devote even more attention to ensuring that he achieves a most honorable reputation among his fellow citizens. Who could fail to know that speeches seem truer when spoken by those of good name than by the disreputable, and that arguments acquire more authority when they come from one’s life than from mere words.”
• p. 257: Isocrates explains that denigrating education is bad for society…
  “Because you accept the arguments of those who slander this kind of education (paideia), you have been driving the young away from such activities. [286] You have led the most promising of them to spend their youth in drink, social gatherings, amusements, and games, while neglecting the serious business of self-improvement…”
• p. 258: “that feature which makes human nature superior to that of other living creatures and the Greek race superior to the barbarians, [294] namely, a superior education in intellect and speech.”

Consider the effect of these statements in general:

• p. 222: “[91] But I think that even the most ignorant know…”
  • Consider the rhetorical effect of making such a statement.
• p. 225: “[108] ” Who does not know about Corcyra lying in the most strategic and fairest spot among the cities near the Peloponnesus…”
• p. 228: “He surpassed all others in providing magnificent and worthy equipment—and none of the enemy would dare say otherwise.”
• p. 233: “[149] Reasonable and sensible people might perhaps admire you for this, but others who are less talented and who generally are more upset at the honest success of others than at their own misfortune, can only be annoyed and resentful.”
  • He is quoting a fictional student above.
• p. 239: “No one would deny that of these two, the soul is superior and more valuable, for its task is to deliberate about matters private and public…”
• p. 241: “Doesn’t everyone know that even if such a person does not acquire a thorough education but only a general education that is common to all, he would be such an orator that in my view no Greek could equal him?”
• p. 243: “Sensible people should not have conflicting judgments about similar matters…”
• p. 259: “[301] It is up to the jurors who are sensible to destroy those who are responsible for such words, because they heap a great shame on Athens…”
  • Pay attention to note 97 “Athenians as intellectuals.”
• p. 260: “We have many rivals in athletic competition, but in education, all would judge us winners.”

Rhetorical Analysis Examples

Let’s jump back to Last Week’s webpage and check out the educational links. If I haven’t already, I’ll ask you about your Mini-Rhetorical Analysis topics, which I know you all have.

On Canvas, I have a NSFW Facebook post we might review. Consider these questions:

• What assumptions seem to guide the author’s post, specifically her argument?
• How does the author appear to convey ethos, and what might that ethos be?
• Does her conclusion remind you of any similar types of appeals?
  • Think about the encomiums (partial and full) we’ve read.

Not Required Reading but FYI

The rest of the speeches in Part I have similar rhetorical moves, so I hope focusing on the ones we’re reading give you a good gist of Isocrates. Below are some notes for a couple others.

“Busiris”

As the translator mentions, this title is a corruption of “Bu-Osiris, meaning ‘the place of Osiris‘” (p. 49).

• p. 50: “most people who are admonished naturally regard it as no help but listen to what is said with reluctance to the extent that anyone examines their mistakes in detail.”
• p. 51: “Everyone knows that those who want to eulogize people must point out more good attributes than they actually have, and those who want to prosecute them must do the opposite.”
• p. 55: “It is especially worthwhile to praise and admire the piety of the Egyptians and their service to the gods.”
  • “by instilling in us a fear of the gods from the beginning, they cause us not to act like beasts toward one another.”
• p. 56: “I attribute to him nothing that is impossible, only laws and a constitution, which are the acts of good and noble men.”
• p. 57: “since the facts are open to interpretation and we can only speculate about them, if we look at what is likely, who would suppose anyone more responsible for the institutions there than a son of Poseidon who was descended from Zeus on his mother’s side?”
  • That’s a very postmodern statement from an ancient figure…well, at least the stuff before Poseidon.
• p. 58: Not a fan of poets.
• p. 59: “It is unreasonable to attribute the cause of our children’s blessings to the gods but to believe that they take no thought of their own.”

“On the Team of Horses”

It’s Olympic season, and I have many opinions on the individual games, the fact it’s in Italy, and the industry itself. Just like today, in Ancient Greece rich people loved horse racing.

• pp. 68-69: “I would be ashamed if I appeared to any citizen to give less thought to my father’s reputation than to my own problems.”
• p. 71: “It would be much more reasonable to criticize those who remained and committed crimes that deserve exile.”
• pp. 72-73: “…even the vilest of men can heap abuse not only on the best of men but even on the gods.”
• Why bring this up here? What is he juxtaposing with such a statement? Is this an enthymeme?
• p. 78: “Those who have money face a fine, but those without means like me face losing my civic rights, which I regard a greater misfortune than exile.”

The speaker makes several points about the good deeds his father did for the city when addressing the court. It appears he once had money but is now less well off.

“Trapeziticus”

This oratory is a situation where a well off man wants to get a loan back from someone who swindled him. It brings up the preposterous practice of torturing slaves for testimony, offering us insight into the minds of the wealthy of Athens.

Onward to On Christian Rhetoric

I swear to you the next work isn’t a trick to proselytize. We’re reading it in a secular context to consider how a dominant religion in Western Civilization uses rhetoric and its rhetorical tradition. Whether you like it or not, believers and non-believers in the West have been influenced/affected by Christianity. What do I mean by that? Also, don’t forget that I will ask you about your Mini-Rhetorical Analysis topic next week. Consider the areas we’ve already discussed: speeches, prefaces, and polemics. Maybe read “Politics of the English Language” by George Orwell. I will ask you what topic you’re leaning towards next week…

Looking ahead, we’ll discuss Knoblauch’s Discursive Ideologies (Ch. 1 & 2, pp. 1-48) in two weeks. That book should contextualize our readings and fill in the gaps (or create new ones)—we can’t cover every single one in depth. It will also be helpful in locating scholarship on our figures and clarifying their (often) confusing arguments.

---

Work Cited

Effron, Daniel A., Kieran O’Connor, Hannes Leroy, and Brian J. Lucas. From Inconsistency to Hypocrisy: When Does “Saying One Thing but Doing Another” Invite Condemnation?” Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 38, 2018, pp. 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2018.10.003 {Available when signed into Atkins Library}

• • p. 207: “[7] I considered…to write a speech that would be (as it were) an image (eikōn) of my thoughts and my life as a whole.”
  • p. 208: “individuals who dare to blame others for the things they themselves are guilty of are the most wicked and deserve the harshest penalties.”
    • What other text warns against hypocrisy?
    • Hypocrisy is a type of word-deed misalignment that most agree would consider a serious character flaw. However, saying one thing but doing another isn’t inherently bad or consider hypocritical.
    • Effron et al. explain that “to interpret an actor’s word-deed misalignment as hypocrisy is to believe it occurred because the actor has claimed an undeserved moral benefit” (p. 65, emphasis added).
    • Therefore, the heroin addict who tells an audience not to use heroin–although they’re using it–is (most likely) not claiming moral superiority; instead, they’re issuing a warning, and they may even receive “street cred” because they have first-hand experience with the danger of the substance. Such word-deed misalignment actually bolster’s one’s ethos as opposed to harming it by labeling one a hypocrite, which conveys a negative ethos.
    • Specifically, Effron et al. note the value of speaker contrition when an audience considers labeling (or not) the speaker as a hypocrite: “A reformed sinner who has recognized the error of her ways, felt guilty, made amends, or exerted effort to change her behavior is more entitled to this benefit than a current sinner” (p. 68, emphasis added). The “benefit” they point to is preaching virtue, which I’m equating to promoting healthy, non-destructive behaviors like not indulging in harmful addictive substances.
    • However, are all habits/addictions the same? Is gambling the same as substance abuse?
  • p. 210: “we accept whatever the accuser says, and we sometimes refuse to hear the voice of the defendant who tries to refute them.”
    • Besides the obvious examples of someone being “judged in the court of public opinion,” what other examples are there of refusing to hear other accounts?
    • What do you do when something doesn’t fit into your world view?
  • p. 218: “all my speeches pertain to virtue justice.”
  • Isocrates goes into his approach to instructing “the Cyprian Nicocles, who was king at that time, and it advises him how he should rule his citizens.”
  • pp. 219: “[72] I also try to persuade him to treat it as a terrible matter if he sees worse men ruling the better classes, and the foolish giving orders to the more sensible. And I add that, insofar as he disparages others’ stupidity more vigorously, so much more so should he cultivate his own understanding.”
  • Isocrates then reads “To Nicocles” (pp. 158-168 in Mirhady & Too)–se note 38
    • • p. 159:  The difference in education and approach to ordinary citizens and monarchs.
        “Many things educate ordinary citizens: above all, the lack of luxury and the need to plan for one’s livelihood each day; [3] then, the laws by which each individual lives as a citizen; next, outspokenness (parrhēsia) and open permission for friends to rebuke and for enemies to attack each other’s faults.”
      • “[4] But the situation of monarchs (tyrannoi), who need education more than others, is very different, and when they come to power, they are never admonished.“
      • p. 160: “I think that everyone would agree that rulers should end a city’s misfortune, maintain its prosperity, and make it big if it is small.”
      • What’s the rhetorical effect of this sentence?
      • “…kings are required to train their souls as no athlete trains his body—for none of the public festivals offers the sort of challenge you (kings) undertake each day.”
      • “…education and diligence have the greatest power to benefit our nature. [13] Associate with the wisest of your advisers, and send for any others you can; and do not think you have the luxury of being ignorant of any of the famous poets or sophists.”
      • p. 161: “Take thought for the common people, and do everything to rule them in a way that pleases them, [16] knowing that oligarchies and other forms of government which best serve the people (to plēthos) last the longest.”
      • p. 162: “[24] Do not try to exercise authority by harsh or extreme punishments, but by dominating all with your intelligence and by making others think that you plan better than they do for their best interests.”
      • p. 164: Wealth ≠ ethos–“Even base men have wealth, but only those who are superior can possess a good reputation.”
      • “Moderation lies in falling short rather than in going too far.”
      • pp. 165-166: “…we should consider most accomplished the man who is able to draw together the most ideas held by others and to articulate them most elegantly.”
      • p. 166: “…most people do not delight in the healthiest foods, in the finest way of life, in the best actions, or in the most useful creatures; rather, they enjoy pleasures that are in every way opposed to their own advantage…”
      • p. 167: “Clearly those who wish to do or write something to please the masses do not seek the most useful speeches but those that are full of fictions (mythōdestatoi). For people delight when they hear such narratives
        or watch contests and competitions.”

• p. 220—Here, Isocrates asks a series of three rhetorical questions about speeches (just before and after [77]). Then, he associates the ability to speak and persuade (the ability to use rhetoric) as the foundation for civilized society; therefore, his position as teacher is the most important in all of Greece.
• • “If you were to be persuaded by my words, you would govern the whole of Greece well and justly and in the best interests of Athens.”
  • “…we should value those who make it their business to write speeches of this kind more than those who legislate and inscribe laws…”
• p. 221: “I try to persuade the whole city to undertake activities which will lead to their own happiness and will free the rest of the Greeks from their present evils.”
• And what is the connotation of “happiness” in this context?
• p. 238: “the condition of the city necessarily depends on how the young are educated. Thus sykophants cannot be in charge of such an important matter…”
• p. 241: “…courage that does not signify shamelessness but prepares the soul with moderation (sōphrosynē) so that it has as much confidence in addressing all the citizens as in deliberating with himself.”
• p. 243: “We acquire knowledge through hard work, and we each put into practice what we learn in our own way. From every school only two or three become competitors, while the rest go off to be private citizens.”
  • I believe he means these “competitors” are the bad kind of sophists out to use rhetoric to enrich themselves. But he could also imply that only a few orators go on to be leaders.
• p. 248: “Not one of these men who had done such great things neglected speech (logoi); rather, they paid much more attention to it than to other things.”
  • • Here’s one list of the Seven Sages
  • p. 248: “[239] Isn’t it more fitting to praise rather than put on trial men who do not get involved in such matters, and who do not live without discipline, or engage in any other shameful activity? It is clear that we educate our students into the same sort of activities as occupy us.”

Isocrates appears to go all out in promoting rhetoric, public speaking broadly, as the most important activity. Consider, though, as we’ve discussed in other contexts, that this pursuit is not expected of everyone. In fact, Isocrates points to a need for “native talent” (p. 240) to acquire these skills.

• p. 250: “[245] But toward those who apply themselves diligently and wish to acquire the things they themselves desire, they are irritated and jealous, they are upset, and they go through the same sort of experience as lovers.”
• p. 250: “[249] This is a sign not only of their confusion, but also of their disrespect for the gods.”
• pp. 250-251: “[250] Worst of all, although they assume the soul is more important than the body, despite knowing this, they welcome those who engage in gymnastics more than those who engage in philosophy. Surely it is irrational to praise those who engage in a lesser activity rather than a higher activity.”
  • Yeah! More reading, less gym!
• p. 251: “Speech (logos) is responsible for nearly all our inventions. [255] It legislated in matters of justice and injustice and beauty and baseness, and without these laws, we could not live with one another.”
  • Replace “speech” with “communication,” and you can probably jump to technical communication, scientific dissemination, and education in general.
• p. 252: “[256] With speech we fight over contentious matters, and we investigate the unknown….[257] If one must summarize the power of discourse, we will discover that nothing done prudently occurs without speech (logos), that speech is the leader of all thoughts and actions, and that the most intelligent people use it most of all.”
• p. 253: “When we are exercised and sharpened in these matters, we are able to receive and learn more important and significant material more quickly and easily.”
• p. 255: “[257] In my view, people improve and become worthier if they are interested in speaking well, have a passion for being able to persuade their audience, and also desire advantage (pleonexia)—not what foolish people think it is but that which truly has this power.”
• “[278] Moreover, anyone who wishes to persuade others will not neglect virtue but will devote even more attention to ensuring that he achieves a most honorable reputation among his fellow citizens. Who could fail to know that speeches seem truer when spoken by those of good name than by the disreputable, and that arguments acquire more authority when they come from one’s life than from mere words.”
• p. 257: Isocrates explains that denigrating education is bad for society…
  “Because you accept the arguments of those who slander this kind of education (paideia), you have been driving the young away from such activities. [286] You have led the most promising of them to spend their youth in drink, social gatherings, amusements, and games, while neglecting the serious business of self-improvement…”
• p. 258: “that feature which makes human nature superior to that of other living creatures and the Greek race superior to the barbarians, [294] namely, a superior education in intellect and speech.”

Consider the effect of these statements in general:

• p. 222: “[91] But I think that even the most ignorant know…”
  • Consider the rhetorical effect of making such a statement.
• p. 225: “[108] ” Who does not know about Corcyra lying in the most strategic and fairest spot among the cities near the Peloponnesus…”
• p. 228: “He surpassed all others in providing magnificent and worthy equipment—and none of the enemy would dare say otherwise.”
• p. 233: “[149] Reasonable and sensible people might perhaps admire you for this, but others who are less talented and who generally are more upset at the honest success of others than at their own misfortune, can only be annoyed and resentful.”
  • He is quoting a fictional student above.
• p. 239: “No one would deny that of these two, the soul is superior and more valuable, for its task is to deliberate about matters private and public…”
• p. 241: “Doesn’t everyone know that even if such a person does not acquire a thorough education but only a general education that is common to all, he would be such an orator that in my view no Greek could equal him?”
• p. 243: “Sensible people should not have conflicting judgments about similar matters…”
• p. 259: “[301] It is up to the jurors who are sensible to destroy those who are responsible for such words, because they heap a great shame on Athens…”
  • Pay attention to note 97 “Athenians as intellectuals.”
• p. 260: “We have many rivals in athletic competition, but in education, all would judge us winners.”

Rhetorical Analysis Examples

Let’s jump back to Last Week’s webpage and check out the educational links. If I haven’t already, I’ll ask you about your Mini-Rhetorical Analysis topics, which I know you all have.

On Canvas, I have a NSFW Facebook post we might review. Consider these questions:

• What assumptions seem to guide the author’s post, specifically her argument?
• How does the author appear to convey ethos, and what might that ethos be?
• Does her conclusion remind you of any similar types of appeals?
  • Think about the encomiums (partial and full) we’ve read.

Not Required Reading but FYI

The rest of the speeches in Part I have similar rhetorical moves, so I hope focusing on the ones we’re reading give you a good gist of Isocrates. Below are some notes for a couple others.

“Busiris”

As the translator mentions, this title is a corruption of “Bu-Osiris, meaning ‘the place of Osiris‘” (p. 49).

• p. 50: “most people who are admonished naturally regard it as no help but listen to what is said with reluctance to the extent that anyone examines their mistakes in detail.”
• p. 51: “Everyone knows that those who want to eulogize people must point out more good attributes than they actually have, and those who want to prosecute them must do the opposite.”
• p. 55: “It is especially worthwhile to praise and admire the piety of the Egyptians and their service to the gods.”
  • “by instilling in us a fear of the gods from the beginning, they cause us not to act like beasts toward one another.”
• p. 56: “I attribute to him nothing that is impossible, only laws and a constitution, which are the acts of good and noble men.”
• p. 57: “since the facts are open to interpretation and we can only speculate about them, if we look at what is likely, who would suppose anyone more responsible for the institutions there than a son of Poseidon who was descended from Zeus on his mother’s side?”
  • That’s a very postmodern statement from an ancient figure…well, at least the stuff before Poseidon.
• p. 58: Not a fan of poets.
• p. 59: “It is unreasonable to attribute the cause of our children’s blessings to the gods but to believe that they take no thought of their own.”

“On the Team of Horses”

It’s Olympic season, and I have many opinions on the individual games, the fact it’s in Italy, and the industry itself. Just like today, in Ancient Greece rich people loved horse racing.

• pp. 68-69: “I would be ashamed if I appeared to any citizen to give less thought to my father’s reputation than to my own problems.”
• p. 71: “It would be much more reasonable to criticize those who remained and committed crimes that deserve exile.”
• pp. 72-73: “…even the vilest of men can heap abuse not only on the best of men but even on the gods.”
• Why bring this up here? What is he juxtaposing with such a statement? Is this an enthymeme?
• p. 78: “Those who have money face a fine, but those without means like me face losing my civic rights, which I regard a greater misfortune than exile.”

The speaker makes several points about the good deeds his father did for the city when addressing the court. It appears he once had money but is now less well off.

“Trapeziticus”

This oratory is a situation where a well off man wants to get a loan back from someone who swindled him. It brings up the preposterous practice of torturing slaves for testimony, offering us insight into the minds of the wealthy of Athens.

Onward to On Christian Rhetoric

I swear to you the next work isn’t a trick to proselytize. We’re reading it in a secular context to consider how a dominant religion in Western Civilization uses rhetoric and its rhetorical tradition. Whether you like it or not, believers and non-believers in the West have been influenced/affected by Christianity. What do I mean by that? Also, don’t forget that I will ask you about your Mini-Rhetorical Analysis topic next week. Consider the areas we’ve already discussed: speeches, prefaces, and polemics. Maybe read “Politics of the English Language” by George Orwell. I will ask you what topic you’re leaning towards next week…

Looking ahead, we’ll discuss Knoblauch’s Discursive Ideologies (Ch. 1 & 2, pp. 1-48) in two weeks. That book should contextualize our readings and fill in the gaps (or create new ones)—we can’t cover every single one in depth. It will also be helpful in locating scholarship on our figures and clarifying their (often) confusing arguments.

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Work Cited

Effron, Daniel A., Kieran O’Connor, Hannes Leroy, and Brian J. Lucas. From Inconsistency to Hypocrisy: When Does “Saying One Thing but Doing Another” Invite Condemnation?” Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 38, 2018, pp. 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2018.10.003 {Available when signed into Atkins Library}